Economics & Development

Horizontal inequity occurs when employees and self-employed workers with the same income end up with different effective tax burdens, due to the difficulty of enforcing taxes on the self-employed. Based on detailed micro-tax simulation models integrated with household surveys in 25 developing countries, this paper shows that tax systems incur large horizontal inequities in practice, and reforms that improve vertical equity worsen horizontal equity by a comparable amount. In-person and online surveys across multiple countries reveal widespread concern about horizontal equity. Randomized information treatments heighten this concern but do not shift tax preferences toward addressing horizontal inequity.

From the first day of their teaching careers, every teacher should possess the core knowledge and skills for teaching, along with a strong professional identity. These qualities enhance the effectiveness of education, leading to improved foundational learning outcomes. Initial teacher education (ITE) serves as the foundation for teachers’ lifelong professional learning, providing the core knowledge and skills for teaching, along with a strong professional identity. Globally, institution-based ITE programs (at teacher training colleges or universities) are the most common path to becoming a teacher. Strengthening the quality of these institution-based programs through sustained investments is essential for all countries to maintain a pipeline of well-prepared teachers.

Togo Transport Connectivity and Logistics Improvement Program Series of Projects Phase 1 for Togo has the development objectives of enhancing efficient urban mobility and logistics in Greater Lome and strengthening climate-resilient road access in targeted high-potential agricultural zones. Component 1: Railway connectivity and logistics between the Autonomous Port of Lome (Port Autonome de Lome, PAL) and the Industrial Platform of Adetikope (Plate-forme Industrielle d’Adetikope, PIA) will develop a freight rail link to shift cargo from road to rail through rehabilitation of approximately 40 kilometers of meter-gauge track, associated terminals in the port and at PIA, passing loops, and safety, signaling, and operational systems, implemented under an integrated arrangement with a private operator. Sub-components: Sub-component 1.1 will finance climate-resilient rehabilitation and upgrading of the PAL–PIA railway and terminal interfaces, while Sub-component 1.2 will provide technical assistance for sector legal and regulatory reforms and capacity building to enable private-sector-led operations and oversight. Component 2: Port-city integration and urban mobility will address congestion and logistics bottlenecks in Greater Lome, especially around port access roads and along the ring road, and prepare broader network improvements. Sub-components: Sub-component 2.1 will rehabilitate critical port access links, improve the ring road for safety and resilience, advance traffic management and road safety inspections, and prepare frameworks for privately financed truck parking near the port and PIA; Sub-component 2.2 will prepare integrated traffic and signaling systems, road safety programs for vulnerable users, and the technical, operational, and institutional groundwork for future public transport infrastructure and services to be scaled up under a subsequent phase. Component 3: Road infrastructure and logistics development will improve connectivity for Zones d’Amenagement Agricole Planifie (ZAAPs) through climate-resilient rehabilitation of feeder, secondary, and national roads and pilot agro-logistics solutions. Sub-components: Sub-component 3.1 will rehabilitate prioritized feeder roads to ensure all-season access between production areas, ZAAPs, and markets; Sub-component 3.2 will rehabilitate and selectively upgrade national and secondary roads linking ZAAPs to corridors; Sub-component 3.3 will pilot a digitally enabled first and last mile logistics service in selected ZAAPs, including a platform, vehicles, and training for farmers and small firms; Sub-component 3.4 will support maintenance policies and pilots integrating the Road Maintenance Financing Autonomous Company and community-based routine maintenance to sustain assets. Component 4: Technical assistance and project management will support fiduciary, environmental and social management, monitoring and evaluation, coordination, resettlement implementation, and capacity building, including a paid internship program focused on women and preparation activities for the next phase. Component 5: Contingent Emergency Response will enable rapid reallocation for eligible emergencies under agreed procedures.

The Country Opinion Survey in Armenia assists the World Bank Group (WBG) in better understanding how stakeholders in Armenia perceive the WBG. It provides the WBG with systematic feedback from national and local governments, multilateral and bilateral agencies, media, academia, the private sector, and civil society in Armenia on: 1) their views regarding the general environment in Armenia; 2) their overall attitudes toward the WBG in Armenia; 3) overall impressions of the WBG’s effectiveness and results, knowledge work and activities, and communication and information sharing in Armenia; and 4) their perceptions of the WBG’s future role in Armenia.