Second-Order Complex Systems

Overview & Synopsis

An implicit assumption generally made about complex systems is that they all consist of a very large number of interacting concrete elements leading to emergent behaviour whose nature and dynamics must be elucidated. Another category of complex systems consisting of few elements is presented but for which the boundaries are blurred and their interactions partially unknown: these complex systems with vague content are called second-order complex systems. Examples of vague complex systems are mental properties with uncertain content and existence, such as the concept of free will. The general methods and tools used in the study of classical complex systems are then no longer suitable and new specific instruments have to be developed. A method suitable for the study of a class of mental concepts called qualities is presented and applied to the property of free will.