O'odham "cem

Overview & Synopsis

The particle cem in Tohono O'odham (an Uto-Aztecan language also known as 'Papago') has two primary readings: unachieved-goal and non-continuation. This paper proposes a single meaning for these two readings: A cem p sentence presupposes that all worlds in which things proceed normally -- i.e., inertia worlds -- are p worlds, and asserts that the actual world is not an inertia world. Inertia can make reference either to physical forces, in which case the non-continuation reading results, or to intentions, in which case the unachieved-goal reading results. To place this modal in cross-linguistic context, I argue that cem behaves like other modals in several ways, including its treatment of physical forces and intentions as formally similar entities.