Education & Pedagogy

Religion pervades all aspects of Saudi Arabia, the conservative home of Islam, where the constitution is the Quran and law is interpreted by religious scholars. A formal adult basic education program was initiated in 1960. As part of the country's modernization since the early 1970s, the Saudi government has begun an enormous nation-building plan that includes universal education and adult literacy education programs. The Quran remains the primary reading material for literacy training. The government offers financial incentives to program completers and pays the entire cost of the programs for all students. Literacy rates have increased tenfold during the last 25 years. Other training programs are also an integral part of the adult education process, but not to the extent literacy programs are. Although as recently as 30 years ago, women were not permitted to become literate in formal programs and 99 percent were illiterate, women now total over one-third of all adult education students. Religious leaders are primarily responsible for women's education, but only blind imams are allowed to teach women the Quran. (The document includes a chronology of events in the development of Saudi Arabian education, a table showing government expenditures for education in selected years from 1945-1983, and a 30-item bibliography.) (CML)

This report is a product of the first phase of a multiyear program of research addressing the subject matter of vocational education. It presents a synthesis of the deliberations of a study group on the nature of vocational education conducted over a 4-month period by representatives from a variety of academic disciplines and professional fields. Following an explanation of the strategy for approaching the subject matter and an analysis of conversations about foundations, synthesized versions of three presentations made to the study group by three resource persons are provided. The presentations are: "Vocational Education Enterprise" (Gene Bottoms); "Vocational Development and Vocational Education" (Ed Herr); and "Educational Reforms and Vocational Education" (Harry Silberman). The next two sections are called, respectively, "Outsiders' Perspectives on Foundations of Vocational Education" and "Insiders' Perspectives on Foundations of Vocational Education" and these consist of the comments of study group members who are either outside or inside the field of vocational education. "Outsiders" represented are Darrell Lewis, Roger Stuewer, Caroline Turner, David Noble and Robert Beck; "insiders" are Jerry McClelland, David Bjorkquist, George Wardlow, and George Copa. The final chapter presents the synthesis across all sessions of the study group and outlines the major questions and suggested line of response for pursuing the description and organization of the subject matter of vocational education from a foundational perspective. (KC)

Traditionally, education has been compartmentalized into academic subjects removed from everyday life, and education has been built on blocks going from the concrete to the abstract. However, humans often do not learn in that linear mode, and if they are to be prepared for the work world of the 1990s and beyond, they need a different model. Academic and vocational education must be integrated. Eight models for integrating vocational and academic education can be identified: (1) incorporating academic competencies into vocational courses; (2) combining academic and vocational teachers to incorporate academic competencies into vocational courses; (3) making the academic curriculum more vocationally relevant; (4) modifying the alignment of both academic and vocational education and curricula; (5) the Academy model; (6) replacing conventional departments with occupational clusters; (7) single-occupation high schools; and (8) electing career paths or occupational majors. The impact of any of these models will require changes in how colleges are now organized, and additional resources to develop materials and staff will be required. The integration of academic and vocational education, however, should not be viewed as the end in itself, but rather as a tool to be used to help increase the quality of education. The Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) process has been used by Waukesha County Technical College (Wisconsin) to develop programs and integrate academic and vocational education. (KC)

These proceedings contain eight presentations that report research in the area of marketing and distributive education: "An Analysis of Private-Sector Training and Development for Marketing and Service Related Industries" (Stewart Husted); "Microcomputers: Updating the Teaching of Merchandising in the Virginia Tech Teacher Education Curriculum" (Betty Heath); "Extent of Involvement of Special Needs Students in DECA (Distributive Education Clubs of America): A National Perspective" (Hill, Sarkees); "An Experimental Research Study of the Correlation between Aptitude and BASIC Computer Operations" (LeVene Olson); "An Experimental Investigation of the Need for Mediated Cognitive Strategies for Merchandising Majors in Information-Embedded Environments" (Stephen Lucas et al.);"Assessing the Outcomes of Marketing Teacher Preparation Using Modules Supplemented by Instructional Television" (Burns, Bowman); "A Study of the Relative Importance of Basic Economic Concepts for Curriculum Emphasis in Retail and Office Occupation Cooperative Programs in Jefferson County, Alabama, as Perceived by Selected Program Related Respondents" (Frances Jackson); and "Evaluation of the Goals and Experiences of Participants in the Missouri Career Association" (Wally Holmes). (YLB)

A study compared the per-student costs of occupational and academic education in Nevada. Data were obtained from superintendents and occupational education directors from 16 Nevada school districts, the Nevada Girls' Training Center, and Nevada Youth Training Center. It was determined that it cost 52 percent more to provide educational services to the occupational student than to the academic student. The student-teacher ratio was 12:1 for occupational education versus 17:1 for academic education. The per-student average teacher's salary was $2,197.23 for occupational education compared with $1,590.86 for academic education. The statewide average amount expended on consumable student supplies was $200.49 for each occupational student versus $70.16 for each academic student. Occupational education equipment costs $145.88 per student per year compared with $32.45 per academic education student. Maintenance and repair costs averaged $87.89 per occupational student versus $43.00 per academic education student. Because of the higher costs associated with providing occupational education services, it was recommended that a differential funding formula be adopted and that the distributive school fund be increased so as to meet these differential costs in a consistent and equitable manner. Appendixes include data comparing various program costs and suggested procedures for use in determining occupational and academic education unduplicated enrollments for a cost comparison study. (MN)

During the years 1988-1990, the Virginia vocational education delivery system directed its resources toward achieving the purposes of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act. Significant progress was made in coordinating secondary and postsecondary programs, developing 2+2 check prep initiatives, integrating academic and vocational curricula, serving target populations, and improving program and service quality. When compared to national standards, the 14 Service Delivery Areas (SDAs) that comprise the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) delivery system reflected a high level of accomplishment. Services provided to JTPA participants included on-the-job training, customized skills training, work experience, basic education, job search assistance, employability development, and youth services. Coordination activities between vocational education and JTPA were undertaken in school divisions, community colleges, correctional institutions, and SDAs. The broadly based efforts emphasized coordination with education beyond the agreement in the vocational plan. The Virginia Council on Vocational Education held public meetings, made program visits, suggested activities for the state vocational education plan, solicited and disseminated descriptions of innovative programs, and made Business and Industry Partnership Awards and Advisory Council and Advisory Committee Awards. (A listing of SDAs and a cooperative agreement are appended.) (YLB)

This compilation cites the legal provisions of Part 30 of the California Education Code relative to special education programs; Chapter 1 of Division 3 of Title 5 of the California Code of Regulations relative to special education for children with disabilities; and other parts of the Education Code, Health and Safety Code, Government Code, and Welfare and Institutions Code having a direct impact on special education and related services for individuals with exceptional needs. Chapters pertaining to Part 30 cover: general provisions; administration; elements of the local plan; identification and referral, assessment, instructional planning, implementation, and review; demonstration programs; early education; programs for 3-to-5-year-olds; career and vocational education programs, transition services, and project workability; interagency agreements; procedural safeguards; behavioral interventions; evaluation, audits, and information; funding; and programs for individuals residing in state hospitals. Topics covered by Title 5 include identification, referral, and assessment; instructional planning and individualized education programs; implementation; nonpublic, nonsectarian school and agency services; and procedural safeguards. Selected provisions of the Education Code (other than Part 30) and other state codes cover such topics as building area allowances, transportation, suspension/expulsion, early intervention, longer day-year, and interagency responsibilities. (JDD)

Further education is provided by local authorities in the United Kingdom in fulfillment of their statutory duties under the Education Reform Act (ERA) of 1988. Through the ERA and its counterparts in Scotland and Northern Ireland, the government aims to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of further education colleges. Educational finance includes student grants and local education agency funding of further education colleges. Labor market programs in Great Britain are delivered via the Training Agency. The government's primary training programs include the Youth Training Scheme, Community Industry Scheme, Employment Training, the Job Training Programme (Northern Ireland), and Business Growth Training. Other providers of education and training (employers; trade unions, through the Trade Union Congress; and private providers) are funded by central government departments other than those with main responsibility for education and training. Three main types of provider are publicly funded institutions, nonprofit providers with a reasonable degree of autonomy from government, and for-profit providers. Competition within local markets appears to be based on reputation and quality of provision. Sources of information about further education and training include the Careers Service, prospecti, databases, and the media. About 300 examining and validating and professional bodies are involved in vocational education and training. (YLB)

As part of the process of developing the reauthorization legislation for the Higher Education Act of 1965 and its descendants, the Subcommittee on Postsecondary Education heard testimony on questions pertaining to the postsecondary education pipeline and the requirements of the future work force. In particular the testimony addressed the questions of who is in the educational pipeline toward postsecondary education; what are the requirements of the future work force, particularly for persons with postsecondary education; and what are the challenges facing postsecondary institutions in their efforts to educate those in the education pipeline. On these questions, the following witnesses spoke: Arnold Packer, co-author, Workforce 2000; Anthony Carnevale, American Society for Training and Development; Carol Frances, Carol Frances Plus Associates; K. Scott Hughes of K. Scott Hughes Associates; Stephen Trachtenberg, President of George Washington University; Eugene Deloatch, Dean of Engineering, Morgan State University; and Ken Lay, International Business Machines, Director of International Education. The document also includes prepared statements, letters and supplemental materials from the witnesses as well as Stephen J. Blair of the National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, and E. Thomas Coleman, Representative to Congress from Missouri. (JB)

This study sought to update and expand the existing databases relating to the supply and demand of special education leadership personnel through a survey of 55 institutions of higher education (IHEs) having doctoral programs in special education. Results are analyzed in terms of doctoral enrollments for the 1990-91 academic year, specialty areas, faculty searches, faculty needs projections, reasons for new faculty positions, and positions taken by graduates. The survey found that schools participating in the Higher Education Consortium for Special Education (HECSE) were the greatest suppliers of leadership personnel and that their graduates take positions in institutions of higher education more frequently, while non-HECSE graduates tend to take positions in state or local education agencies at a greater rate. There was, however, an increase of non-HECSE doctorates entering IHEs, perhaps because they had two or more areas of specialty and could teach across broader and more areas. Very few new doctorates were unable to find employment within their field of expertise. Special education appears to have a very limited pool of future applicants who come from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The survey reinforces previous work on the need to re-supply exiting and retiring faculties. (17 references) (JDD)

Along with schooling, technical and further education, and higher education, adult and community education (ACE) forms part of the framework of lifelong education. It makes a major contribution to the social justice performance of postsecondary education by catering to adults who cannot gain access to or succeed in mainstream postsecondary education. Special populations that ACE reaches are as follows: women; people from non-English speaking backgrounds; prisoners; aboriginal people; people living in small, isolated, and remote communities; and people with disabilities. Policy issues that face ACE include the need for guaranteed and ongoing government funding and fair and reasonable wages for workers, predominantly women, in part-time employment. Equitable fee policies and clear guidelines about areas of ACE activity that are fee exempt must be developed. This policy must be developed within a framework of affordability as distinct from cost recovery. The area of articulation, accreditation, and credit transfer presents a huge challenge for ACE. Courses must be presented in a way that assists learners in getting recognition for their learning. Government policy is necessary to ensure availability of ACE opportunities to adults throughout Australia. Finally, adult educators must look after their own lifelong needs for professional development to make sure they provide a high quality service. (YLB)

This report describes the development of a distance education, professional development program for teacher education which promotes two-way communication between tutor and student through use of the telephone, electronic mail, and facsimile transmission (FAX). It is reported that in 1986, McGill University in Montreal began by offering education courses to five teachers in remote areas, with enrollment expanding to 320 by 1991. Educational computing and media courses were adapted for distance education, representing the department's first major venture in developing specific instructional materials for distance learners. Additionally, the geographical area served grew to include all of Quebec, the Northwest Territories, the Yukon, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and parts of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is noted that, although the relationship between teacher and student in distance education seems to imply a form of learning that is remote, impersonal, and indifferent, students of the McGill program praise the courses for their "human" atmosphere and the "warm" interaction they allow. It is concluded that the McGill University program is a success, and will continue to establish more substantial programs in continuing education for professionals. It is also expected that future research will find immediate application in establishing new guidelines for tutor training. (13 references) (DB)

This six-chapter report describes Hong Kong's experience in promoting nonformal and quasi-formal education programs aimed at enabling adults, especially those with limited formal educational experience, to engage actively in social activities and cope with the change of employment conditions in the city during its post-World War II growth from 600,000 to 5,000,000 people. Following a brief introductory chapter, chapter 2 provides background on Hong Kong, including its political history, population, and economic development. Chapter 3 describes the clientele of adult education in Hong Kong, discussing government policy, what the formal school system provides, and educational opportunities for adults. Chapter 4 lists the types of general education courses for adults in Hong Kong, describes formal education courses, nonformal education, the subvention scheme (job training run by nonprofit organizations), and provides statistics on adult education courses and activities. In chapter 5, technical education and vocational training for adults is described. Information provided covers historical development, the Vocational Training Council, industry training centers, technical institutes, and employer attitudes toward technical institute graduates. The final chapter discusses further strategies for the organization of education programs for the further development and upgrading of adult workers in the context of the changing social and political environment of the city. (KC)

Romania, one of the largest but also one of the poorest nations in Eastern Europe, is moving toward a market economy and a pluralistic society. Romania's educational system reflects a failure to appreciate the value of general secondary education over early specialized vocational training. Basic schooling is compulsory through grade eight, but total enrollment is declining with the birth rate. The Ministry of Education and Sciences (MOES) has coordinated preschool through higher education and scientific research since 1990. MOES sets the curriculum for all primary schools, and there is a highly prescriptive curriculum on the secondary level. Student-teacher ratios are low by international standards, and teacher pay is based on training and experience. Preservice teacher education begins on the secondary level. Students receive textbooks for free, including those texts printed in 13 minority languages. Education spending in Romania is low by international comparisons, and the central government is the source of most funding. The World Bank proposes a five-year education reform program to be implemented by MOES. The project would seek to raise the quality of basic and secondary education, restructure vocational education, and improve educational finance and management. Among the benefits of such a program would be greater employment flexibility in a changing world, a more rational allocation of educational resources, and more generally, improved preparation for Romanian students for the nation's newly democratized mentality. (SG)

This paper recommends new directions for teacher education in the preparation of early childhood (EC) teachers. It reviews the historic fragmentation of the field, present teacher education practice, and the changes needed to address the needs of children from birth to 8 years who increasingly live in poverty, come from minority populations, face violence in their lives, and lack support from both parents. It then recommends that early childhood teacher education programs adopt reforms that: (1) encourage parent involvement in their children's education; (2) prepare EC teachers to work with impoverished children; (3) recognize the unique needs of teen parents; (4) teach EC educators to work with health and social service providers; (5) link good health with school achievement; (6) train EC teachers to be decision-makers and leaders; (7) include violence prevention training; (8) encourage the recruitment of teachers from African-American and Latino groups; (9) prepare EC students to work with children before and after school; (10) offer courses and practicum experiences with children from birth to age 8; (11) integrate EC education and special education; (12) make teachers at ease in a variety of EC settings; (13) address multicultural concerns; and (14) ground programs in developmentally appropriate practice for children in a variety of settings. Includes 31 references. (MDM)