Education & Pedagogy

Social demand for higher education has more than doubled in the past 20 years. However, only one-third of all countries' higher education systems are enrolling more than 50% of the traditional age cohort. Despite major advancements in achieving higher levels of access and participation, inequalities and inequities in higher education persist and have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) launched the "SDG 4 Planning for Flexible Learning Pathways in Higher Education" project in 2018 to support efforts to promote equity and lifelong learning opportunities for all by investing in flexible higher education systems. The project has identified policies and practices that support flexible learning pathways (FLPs) in higher education for a variety of students. The UNESCO definition of FLPs encompasses "entry points and re-entry points at all ages and all educational levels, strengthened links between formal and non-formal structures, and recognition, validation and accreditation of the knowledge, skills and competencies acquired through non-formal and informal education." In collaboration with IIEP-UNESCO, the Jamaican research team carried out an in-depth analysis of policies and practices that support flexible learning pathways (FLPs) in Jamaica. The team conducted interviews and focus group discussions with 91 respondents in late 2019 representing three national-level contrasting higher education institutions: (1) the University of Technology (UTech), a public university; (2) Northern Caribbean University (NCU), a private university; and (3) Moneague College, a multidisciplinary college. The interviews were complemented by a review of relevant national projects, legislative documents, and national statistical databases. This Country Note reflects key findings and conclusions of "Integrated Higher Education in Support of Flexible Learning Pathways in Jamaica. Report for the IIEP-UNESCO Research 'SDG 4: Planning for Flexible Learning Pathways in Higher Education'" (ED617226).

Social demand for higher education has more than doubled in the past 20 years. However, only one-third of all countries' higher education systems are enrolling more than 50% of the traditional age cohort. Despite major advancements in achieving higher levels of access and participation, inequalities and inequities in higher education persist and have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) launched the "SDG 4 Planning for Flexible Learning Pathways in Higher Education" project in 2018 to support efforts to promote equity and lifelong learning opportunities for all by investing in flexible higher education systems. The project has identified policies and practices that support flexible learning pathways (FLPs) in higher education for a variety of students. The UNESCO definition of FLPs encompasses "entry points and re-entry points at all ages and all educational levels, strengthened links between formal and non-formal structures, and recognition, validation and accreditation of the knowledge, skills and competencies acquired through non-formal and informal education." In collaboration with IIEP-UNESCO, the researcher carried out an in-depth case study of policies and practices that support FLPs in the United Kingdom (UK). The researcher conducted interviews and focus group discussions with 42 respondents in autumn 2019 and spring 2020, representing four national-level, higher education institutions located in England. These consisted of two well-established universities (Birmingham and Exeter), one university with regional outreach (Teesside University), and the Open University. The interviews were complemented by a review of relevant national projects, legislative documents, national statistical databases, and institutional documents and data. This Country Note reflects key findings and conclusions of "Flexible Learning Pathways in British Higher Education: A Decentralized and Market-Based System. Report for the IIEP-UNESCO Research 'SDG 4: Planning for Flexible Learning Pathways in Higher Education'" (ED617200).

This report forms part of an international project, led by UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), on higher education's role in supporting "flexible learning pathways." Flexible learning pathways in higher education provide routes to the acquisition of knowledge and skills at different life stages, to meet the different needs and circumstances of the learner. They can involve boundary crossing between different sources of knowledge, different subject fields, different institutional providers, and different forms of learning. Pathways can take learners on journeys through expanded and differentiated higher education systems and beyond. This report draws on the perspectives of national higher education bodies and a range of institutional providers of higher education to identify current policies and practices concerning flexible learning pathways in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) higher education system, though with a main focus on the system in England. Information was gathered from the available literature, from interviews with representatives of national higher education bodies and senior members of universities, and from national datasets of higher education students. The project examined degree structures, admissions at different degree levels, and the flexible entry pathways that were available. The report is structured as follows: (1) an overview of the UK national higher education system and its diversity and differentiation; (2) system-level approaches for supporting flexible learning pathways and the values and aims that inform them; (3) flexible learning pathways in practice, with case studies from two universities, Birmingham University and Teesside University, plus overviews of developments at two other universities, Exeter University and the Open University, along with national student data from all institutions; and (4) conclusions and recommendations for policies and practices for flexible learning pathways in higher education. [For "Flexible Learning Pathways in British Higher Education. IIEP Country Note. No. 8," see ED617201.]

The 2014/2015 Results for Learning Report: Basic Education at Risk examines the progress achieved by Global Partnership for Education (GPE) partner developing countries over the period 2008-2012. Universal primary education has never been so close, yet there are still 58 million children of primary school age who do not go to school around the world, and 41 million of them are in partner developing countries. The report cautions that if progress and investments are not maintained, the hard-won achievements could be reversed. Particularly, basic education is losing priority with the share of budgets spent on primary education falling gradually. The following are among the report's key findings. In GPE partner developing countries: (1) 73% of children complete primary school; (2) 22% of children of primary school age are out of school; (3) 80% of children who complete primary school transition to secondary school; (4) 89 girls for every 100 boys complete primary school; and (5) 82 girls for every 100 boys complete lower secondary school. In GPE developing country partners, there is progress in reaching out-of-school children and getting more children to complete primary school but the goal of Universal Primary Education remains distant. Access to pre-primary and lower secondary education has improved but these levels of education still have a long way to go. Education is slowly becoming more equitable but some inequalities are hard to tackle. The GPE has increased its support, especially for fragile and conflict-affected countries (FCAC) partners but education as a priority in global aid has declined. Finally, the lack of data in the education sector remains a challenge but the Global Partnership for Education is increasing its focus on, and support for, data. Supplementary tables, figures, and graphs are provided in an annex. [For the 2013 Results for Learning Report, see ED566674.]

Since its inception in 2002, the National Center for Education Research (NCER) in the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) has funded over 700 education research grants and over 60 education training grants. The research grants have supported exploratory research to build theory or generate hypotheses on factors that may affect educational outcomes, development and innovation research to create or refine academic interventions, evaluation studies to test the efficacy and effectiveness of interventions, and measurement work to help develop more accurate and valid assessments, and the training grants have helped prepare the next generation of education researchers. NCER's education research grantees have focused on the needs of a wide range of students, from pre-kindergarten through postsecondary and adult education, and have tackled a variety of topic areas. The portfolio of research includes cognition, social and behavioral research, math, science, reading, writing, school systems and policies, teacher quality, statistical and research methods, just to name a few. Each year, our grantees are contributing to the wealth of knowledge across disciplines. Presented herein is a listing of the publications that these grants have contributed along with a full listing of all the projects funded through NCER's education research grant programs from 2002 to 2013. The publications are presented according to the topic area and arranged by the year that the grant was awarded. Where applicable, related grant projects and project websites are noted and links to publications that are listed in the IES ERIC database are provided. For grants that do not yet have associated publications in press or published, the word "Publications" is used as a placeholder to denote where future publications will occur during updates to this document.

There is a growing consciousness of the importance of definite preparation for business occupations. People are realizing more than ever that better preparation for these occupations usually results in greater vocational efficiency and contributes to vocational and social happiness. Business men have recently taken a greater interest in commercial education because they appreciate the relation of vocational efficiency to the efficiency of the business community. Educators have given increased attention to this phase of education in order to develop a balanced program that will meet the best interests of the individual, the business community, and society. The purpose of this bulletin is to set forth briefly the progress of commercial education during the biennium 1924-1926. The term "commercial education" is used to include that education and training which prepares specifically for an understanding of the relationships and the performance of activities in business. A survey of educational and business literature, including reports pertaining to statistics, researches, courses of study, conferences, school systems, universities, and business men's organizations, reveals a greater interest and activity in this phase of education than during any similar period. An outcome of this increased interest is the tendency toward scientific curriculum revision. Some of the important developments pertain to increased enrollments, definite vocational objectives, course of study revision, and research. Contents include: (1) Introduction; (2) Tendencies in enrollments; (3) Trend of objectives; (4) Trend toward standardization of business occupations; (5) Development of closer cooperation between education and business; (6) Commercial occupation surveys; (7) A new conception of office practice; (8) Developments in the junior high schools; (9) Progress in the high schools; (10) Status of supervision; (11) Contests in commercial subjects; (12) Commercial education conferences; (13) Tendencies in commercial teacher training; (14) The private business schools; (15) Higher education for business; and (16) Conclusion. (Contains 6 footnotes.) [Best copy available has been provided.]

This is the 30th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008. Section 664(d) of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), as reauthorized in 2004, requires that the Department of Education report annually on the progress made toward the provision of a free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities and the provision of early intervention services to infants and toddlers with disabilities. The "30th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 2008" describes our nation's progress: (1) in providing a free appropriate public education (FAPE) for all children with disabilities; (2) in assuring that the rights of children with disabilities and their parents are protected; (3) in assisting states and localities in providing for the education of all children with disabilities; and (4) in assessing the effectiveness of efforts to educate children with disabilities. The report focuses on the children and students with disabilities being served under "IDEA," Part C or B (P.L. 108-446), nationally and at the state level. The following are appended: (1) Infants, Toddlers, Children and Students Served Under "IDEA," by Age Group and State; (2) "Developmental Delay" Data for Students Ages 6 Through 9 Served Under "IDEA," Part B; and (3) Differences in State Reporting of "IDEA," Part B, Disabilities.

Over the last three decades, higher education institutions have experienced massive changes. In particular, institutions of higher education have been positioned as a means to contribute to the knowledge economy and gain a level of competitive advantage in the global marketplace. "Advancing Knowledge in Higher Education: Universities in Turbulent Times" addresses ways in which knowledge is shaped, produced, and reworked to meet international demands for productive workforces. Divided into three sections that interrogate the higher education policy context, knowledge production, and knowledge workers, this reference publication focuses on the role of higher education in business value creation and competitive advantage, serving as a useful reference for academicians, professionals, researchers, and students. After a preface (Tanya Fitzgerald), chapters include: (1) Troubling Higher Education (Tanya Fitzgerald); (2) Organizational Agility in Universities: Tensions and Challenges (Sheila Mukerjee); (3) Professional Knowledge Workers: Tensions and Binaries (Andrea Simpson and Tanya Fitzgerald); (4) Equity Policy and Knowledge in Australian Higher Education (Matthew Brett); (5) Higher and Further: Can We Keep Our Educational Promises? (Damon Cartledge); (6) A Rhetoric of Certainty: Modern Knowledge Practices in Contemporary Education (Dorothy Smith); (7) In Search of Relevant Learning Spaces (Greg Powell); (8) Embracing Social Media to Advance Knowledge Creation and Transfer in the Modernized University: Management of the Space, the Tool, and the Message (Catherine Lang and Narelle Lemon); (9) Inclusive Growth in Higher Education: The Development of Pathways from Vocational Education and Training (Mike Brown); (10) A Fourth Wave of Education for Sustainability (EfS) in Higher Education (Mike Brown); (11) Re-Valuing Constructed Knowledge: An Agenda for STE(A)M (Damon Cartledge); (12) Properties of Knowledge Matter: A Re-Examination of the Glitz of Entrepreneurialism as a Change Paradigm for Higher Education (Mary A. Burston); (13) From Professional Expert to Novice Academic: Challenges and Complexities (Jacolyn Weller); (14) The Scholarship of Knowledge in the Modernised University (Gregory Heath); (15) Knowledges, Discontinuities, Spirals, and Universities (Lorraine Ling); and (16) On the Production Line? Academics in Modernized Universities (Dorothy Smith). A section about the contributors and an index are included.

The following 14 papers, with abstracts and references, are compiled in this conference proceedings: "Exploring the Roles and Duties of Vocational Special Needs Educators" (Melanie Fagert); "Professional Competencies for Provisionally Licensed Career and Technical Education Teachers in Virginia" (Betty Heath-Camp, Daisy L. Stewart and William G. Camp); "Differences Between Faculty and Students' Perception of Recruitment Techniques that Influence Students to Attend Four-year Automotive Programs" (Gregory Belcher and Robert Frisbee); "The Status of Preservice Education in Career and Technology Education" (Thomas H. Bruening, Dennis C. Scanlon and Carol L. Hodes); "A Description of the Occurrence and Impact of Alternate Forms of Assistance Provided to Beginning Agricultural Education Teachers by Minnesota School Districts" (Richard Joerger and Glenn Boettcher); "A Comparison of Diskette and Paper and Pencil Mail-Out Survey Methods for Measuring Self-Directed Learning with the BISL [Bartlett-Kotrlik Inventory of Self-Learning]" (James Bartlett, II); "Factors Influencing A Student's Perception of the Image of a Career and Technical Education Student Organization" (Barry Croom and James Flowers); "Factors Influencing a Student's Perception of the Programs and Services Offered by a Career and Technical Education Student Organization" (Barry Croom and James Flowers); "Vocational Aspirations, Work-related Experiences, and Early Career Choice Patterns of Work-Bound Youth During Early Adolescence" (Jay Rojewski); "Underlying Factors Related to Teaching Effectiveness as Perceived by Apprenticeship Trainers" (Howard Gordon); "Beyond the Success of the Students: Effects of Participation on School-to-Career Partners" (Keith MacAllum and Ivan Charner); "Global Human Resource Development: Cultural Influences on the Delivery of Executive Development Programs" (Bob R. Stewart and Tzu-Feng Marlene Lin); and "Teachers in the Future: Retaining Secondary Business and Marketing Education Teachers" (Sheila Ruhland). (KC)

This document contains 19 papers on adult education and development worldwide. The following papers are included: "Editorial" (Heribert Hinzen); "Lifelong Learning in Europe: Moving towards EFA (Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All) Goals and the CONFINTEA V Agenda" (Sofia Conference on Adult Education); "Poverty and Schooling in the Lives of Girls in Latin America" (Nelly P. Stromquist); "Promoting Democratic Values through the Discussion Forum (DF) Strategy: Evaluation of Its Impact on the Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAPs) of Adult Learners in Tanzania" (Willy Komba); "Empowerment of Women in Cuba: Experiences of the SOFIA Mentor Program" (Janneke Jellema, Magdalena Mazon Hernandez); "Gender Impact of HIV/AIDS/STIs" (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/Sexually Transferred Infections): Some Implications for Adult Education Practitioners in West Africa" (Evelyn Appiah-Donyina); "10 Years of Project Activities in Mexico" (Ursula Klesing-Rempel); "What Works and What Doesn't" (Herbert Bergmann); "From Dakar to Pisa: Growing Support for Basic Education" (Michael Hofmann, Stefan Lock); "Putting Bread on the Table: The Effects of Literacy and Livelihood" (Ekundayo J.D. Thompson); "Multilingual Literacies as a Resource" (Anthony Okech); "Ethnic Differences in the Approach to Adult Literacy: Experiences from Nationwide Literacy Training" (Godfrey Sentumbwe); "The Role of Adult Education in Sustainable Development" (Forough Olinga, Margaret Nakato Lubyayi); "Adult Education and Skills Training for Small and Medium-Size Enterprises in the Tourist Industry in One Region of Chile" (Oscar Corvalan V); "Training Methodology Used by the Nigerian Indigenous Apprenticeship System" (Raymond Uwameiye, Ede O.S. Iyamu); "Public Health Education in Rural Thailand: Professional Perspectives on the 'Learning @ the Workplace' Program"(Montira Inkochasan, Thitikorn Trayaporn, Marc Van der Putten); "Why Dialogue Is Important" (Romano Prodi); "Adult and Continuing Education in and through International and Supranational Organizations" (Joachim H. Knoll); and "After 11th September ... Development-Oriented Adult Education as World Domestic Policy?" (Heribert Hinzen). Some papers contain substantial bibliographies. (MN)

This book contains 14 papers on adult education and the struggle for knowledge and power in society. The following papers are included: "At the Heart of Practice: The Struggle for Knowledge and Power" (Ronald M. Cervero, Arthur L. Wilson); "The Power of Economic Globalization: Deskilling Immigrant Women through Training" (Shahrzad Mojab); "Silent Power: HRD (Human Resource Development) and the Management of Learning in the Workplace" (Fred M. Schied, Vicki K. Carter, Sharon L. Howell); "The Power of Discourse: Work-Related Learning in the 'Learning' Age" (Elaine Butler); "The Power of the State: Connecting Lifelong Learning Policy and Educational Practice" (Kjell Rubenson); "The Politics of Globalization: Transformative Practice in Adult Education Graduate Programs" (Budd L. Hall); "The Power of Race and Gender: Black Women's Struggle and Survival in Higher Education" (Juanita Johnson-Bailey); "The Politics of Positionality: Teaching for Social Change in Higher Education" (Elizabeth J. Tisdell); "Transforming Boundaries of Power in the Classroom: Learning from La Mestiza" (Mechthild Hart); "The Politics of Access and Communication: Using Distance Learning Technologies" (Nod Miller); "A Political Analysis of Discussion Groups: Can the Circle Be Unbroken?" (Stephen D. Brookfield); "The Politics of Place: Producing Power and Identity in Continuing Education" (Arthur L. Wilson); "Solidarity and Power in Urban Gay Communities: Planning HIV Prevention Education" (Kimberly B. Sessions, Ronald M. Cervero); and "Power in Practice: A New Foundation for Adult Education" (Arthur L. Wilson, Ronald M. Cervero). All papers include substantial bibliographies. (MN)

Ideological arguments are made for open learning, economic ones for distance education. If it can produce similar results to those of conventional education at a lower cost, then distance education has a powerful appeal. With increasing demand for access to educational opportunities at all levels, and often decreasing budgets in real terms for educational provision, there has been a growing interest in the open and distance learning in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) as an increasingly important and credible part of education delivery strategies designed to enable greater access to quality education. The debate in SSA has tended to be centered more upon cost advantages than open access, but both considerations are important. There is very little reliable data on higher education and training costing data and where they exist, the data emphasize recurrent, not capital costs, and costs per student rather than costs per successful graduate. This report focuses on exploring ways in which to avoid the symptoms of weak financial planning. It outlines key concepts and approaches to financial planning for distance education. It then explores some key mistakes that have been made in financial planning in different contexts. Having provided this conceptual framework, the report goes on to explore the costing of of distance education and open learning (DEOL) in some detail using case studies of actual DEOL programs in SSA and a financial planning tool developed for precisely this purpose. The emphasis in this report is on the costing of DEOL provision in SSA, and the case studies used as the basis of this report have all been drawn from institutions and programs in SSA. (Contains 20 tables and 4 figures.) [This report was written by the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE), with support by the Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) and the Commonwealth of Learning.]

The ways in which the needs of special populations--students in poverty, English learners, and particularly special education students--have been addressed in studies measuring educational adequacy vary widely. This paper analyzes how these populations have been treated across various adequacy studies, with its major focus on special education adequacy. The study focuses on two primary research questions: (1) What analytical techniques exist for estimating the cost of an adequate education for special education students?; and (2) How might these techniques be applied to estimate the cost of an adequate education for special education students in California, and how do these cost estimates compare to what is currently spent on special education students? Of the four standard adequacy methodologies, only the professional judgment and econometric approaches appear at least theoretically capable of producing comparable stand alone estimates of special education adequacy. Although there are questions as to whether stand-alone special education adequacy estimates can be derived from these types of approaches, to the extent this can be done such estimates would have an important advantage in that the needs of special education students can only be fully considered in relation to the general education services they receive. It is only in this holistic sense that special education adequacy can be fully considered. (Contains 16 tables, 19 exhibits, and 102 footnotes. Appended are the following: (1) Recommended Special Education Staffing Ratios for Wyoming (Based on Parrish et al., 2002); (2) Examples of Panel Configurations of Selected Professional Judgment Panel Studies; (3) Comparison of Base Estimates from Selected Studies Using Both the Professional Judgment and Successful Schools/Districts Approach; and (4) Brief Overview of the Standardized Account Cost Structure (SACS).) [This research was conducted at the request of the Governor's Committee on Educational Excellence, the California Superintendent of Public Instruction Jack O'Connell, and members of the California Legislature. It is part of a larger group of studies coordinated through Stanford University.]

For more than one hundred years, the United States has been the scene of academic warfare between traditional and progressive educators. During most of the nation's history, many Americans have assumed that the primary purpose of school is to pass on to children the information and skills necessary to survive in society. This traditional view accepts the fact that a teacher's task is to inform children as to what they should know. Officials at the state and local level determine the content of students' education, and it is the teacher's job to ensure that the content is taught. Even before the beginning of the 20th century, John Dewey and others introduced a different model. They believed that students learn best "by doing" not by being passive listeners. For progressive educators, the teacher's role was to be a facilitator of learning in classrooms where students' interest helped to provide appropriate developmental learning experience. This new approach to education has greatly affected our schools during the past century. More recently, the emergence in American education of four initiatives that have threatened the continued influence of progressive education have been seen. They include the "back to basics movement", mandated state curriculum standards, high stakes testing, and school accountability. Despite these trends, there appears to be several factors that might lead one to conclude that progressive education is remaining a viable approach in the United States. This book considers these factors as well as past, present, and possible future of the progressive education movement. Following the introduction, the book presents sixteen chapters for review: (1) The Rise of Progressive Education; (2) John Dewey; (3) Other Pioneers in the Progressive Education Movement; (4) The Progressive Education Movement During the First Half of the Twentieth Century; (5) The Fifties; (6) The Sixties and Seventies; (7) A Nation at Risk (1983); (8) The Eighties and Nineties; (9) No Child Left Behind; (10) Maria Montessori; (11) Teacher Education Programs; (12) Middle Schools; (13) Choice; (14) Education of the Gifted and Talented; (15) Progressive Education Today; and (16) The Future of Progressive Education.

An evaluation is presented on the impact of HIV/AIDS on the education sector in the Asia Pacific region. Its focus is how human rights in relation to education have been upset by the epidemic. The education sector is urged to develop more initiatives to educate about the epidemic, and to build measures that deal with both immediate and long-term impacts of HIV/AIDS. Children infected with HIV are often restricted from access to education. This limitation does not only come from the community, but also from family or parents. Such stigma and discrimination is not restricted to children. Teachers and school administrators who are HIV infected are also deprived of their right to work. Such discrimination affects not only the individual but the education sector as a whole. An analysis is given on how governments can change and rectify such discrimination through the 4A's models, developed for a UNESCO-supported manual on rights-based education (2004). The 4A's comprise Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability, and Adaptability. Availability refers to the obligation to ensure compulsory and free education for all children within a determined age range. Accessibility describes an obligation to eliminate exclusion from education based on internationally accepted norms. Acceptability sets minimum standards for education; and Adaptability calls for special action to provide education for children who were are precluded from formal schooling. Apart from government policy formulation, the education sector can ensure that all children (whether they are infected with HIV/AIDS or not) are given the right to an education, that infected teachers can continue working, and that confidentiality is observed. There should be no stigmatizing curricular. Young people should learn about the epidemic and ways to protect themselves. There are several links between the education sector, HIV/AIDS and human rights. Key to confronting discrimination includes inclusive education, knowledge about HIV/AIDS, and the quality of the curriculum. (Contains 1 footnote.) [This document was published by UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education. For Discussion Paper No. I in this series, see ED496239.]