Education & Pedagogy

In this pair of two articles, the authors summarize the history of the practice of character instruction in Christian higher education. They examine character education beginning with the founding of Harvard in 1636 to contemporary times. They note that virtually every historian, theologian, and social scientist acknowledges that character instruction was at the heart of the curriculum in Christian higher education from Harvard's founding in 1636 until at least the Civil War. They note that after the Civil War there was a slow erosion in character training in Christian higher education, which facilitated the more cataclysmic changes that occurred much later. The authors also note the effects of these more tumultuous changes that occurred as a result of John Dewey's influence and U.S. Supreme Court decisions in 1962 and 1963. The article demonstrates how Christian character education has gradually retreated into a much smaller number of colleges than used to be the case. The article concludes with propounding three ways that Christian higher education can limit, stop, and even reverse the trend toward less character education, which are likely some of the same ways that trends toward increased secularization can be reversed. Part II covers the influence of industrialization, the challenge of Dewey's philosophy and the concerns of H. H. Horne, and the period after the Supreme Court decisions of 1962 and 1963. The authors then address the relevant trends and the appropriate response by those in Christian higher education. [For Part I, see EJ891544.]

Patient education in asthma management is important; however, there is little known about the characteristics of patients receiving asthma education or how often primary care physicians provide it. The objective of the study was to identify the characteristics of patients receiving asthma education. It was a cross-sectional study using 2001 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey data. The study included 1230 physicians providing office-based ambulatory medical care in the United States. Patients in the study (weighted n = 11 279 952) were those diagnosed with asthma based on International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision code receiving care from a pediatrician, internist or a family physician. Main and secondary outcome measures were asthma education ordered or provided. Multivariate analysis indicated that asthma patients receiving education were more likely to have office visits greater than 20 min [odds ratio (OR) = 3.934], be seen for an acute reason (OR = 2.268), be seen in follow-up rather than an initial visit (OR = 1.780), live in rural rather than metropolitan areas (OR = 1.507), have public rather than private insurance (OR = 1.276) and be seen in privately owned practices (OR = 1.248). Bivariate analyses indicated that patients seeing family physicians were more likely than those seeing internists or pediatricians to receive education. Patient education was not uniformly provided. Family physicians provided more asthma education than either pediatricians or internists. Future research should investigate the quality of education provided. (Contains 4 tables.)

This paper advocates for policy recognition of lifelong learning by institutions of higher learning and governments in Eastern Africa. Lifelong learning and lifelong education are two concepts that aim at widening access to and the participation of adult learners in the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. There are many reasons for advocating for lifelong learning and education in higher institutions of learning in Eastern Africa. Firstly, the demand for higher education in Eastern Africa has increased phenomenally. Secondly, the need to cope with this fast-changing world calls for a continuous acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitude. This paper looks at the concepts of lifelong learning (LLL) and lifelong education (LLE) in relation to the changes that are affecting the provision of university-based learning opportunities for non-traditional students in Eastern Africa, with examples from Makerere University Institute of Adult and Continuing Education in Uganda. In looking at the concepts of LLL and LLE, other concepts of lifewide learning and the learning society are also discussed. Adult learning and adult education are discussed as concepts that are used by adult educators in Eastern Africa with very limited understanding of what they really mean. The confusion in the use of these emerging and popular concepts in Eastern Africa is discussed. The paper presents some recommendations for higher institutions of learning in Eastern Africa to develop a clear understanding of and embrace lifelong learning. (Contains 2 notes and 2 tables.)

The overall aim of the article is to analyse how the universal right to education have been built, legitimized and used. And more specifically ask who is addressed by the universal right to education, and who is given access to rights and to education. The first part of the article focuses on the history of declarations, the notion of the universal right to education, emphasizing differences in matters of detail--for example, the meaning of "compulsory", "children's rights" or "parents' rights"--and critically examining the right of the child and the right of the parent in terms of tensions between "social rights" and "private autonomy rights". Despite differences in detail, the iterations of the universal right to education do share to the full in the idea of education as such. In the second part the attempt to scrutinize the underlying assumptions legitimizing the consensus on education, focusing again on the notion of the child. In conclusion I argue that a certain notion of what it is to be a human being is inscribed within the circle of access to rights and education. These notions of what it means to be a child, a parent, a citizen or a member of the "human family" are notions of enlightenment and humanity and, to my understanding, aspects of how democracy is configured around freedom, equality and fraternity.

The public special education system of the Republic of Azerbaijan is built on the Soviet science of "defectology." In this system, most government-provided educational services segregate children with disabilities in special schools and home environments, separate from children without disabilities and from society at large. From 2005 to 2009, the government of Azerbaijan launched several initiatives so that children with disabilities could be educated alongside their peers. One initiative, the National Program on Development of Inclusive Education, included pilot projects in four cities (Baku, Sumgayit, Mingachevir, and Yevlakh), conducted by the nongovernmental organization Center for Innovations in Education (CIE) in partnership with World Vision Azerbaijan and International Medical Corps. During that time, these pilot projects successfully included 187 children with mild and moderate disabilities in both preschool and primary general education classrooms. The CIE pilot projects used the Step by Step instructional methodology, approved by the Azerbaijan Ministry of Education as one of the national core inclusive education models. Step by Step is one of the largest and most comprehensive early childhood development reform programs for children ages birth through 10 in Azerbaijan. The program promotes the right of all children to receive a quality education and provides materials and training for teachers to ensure equal access for children with disabilities, internally displaced persons and refugees, and families living in poverty. The Step by Step methodology has provided a structure and a set of instructional tools to help teachers meet the individual needs of all children in their classroom, including children with disabilities.

This paper describes the development of education of students with special needs in vocational education. The paper is based on a case study research conducted in 2001-2005 in Jyvaskyla Municipal Federation of Vocational Education in Central Finland. The study consisted of two parts: firstly of the historical analysis of special educational stages, and secondly of the contemporary analysis of special educational challenges in the research target. The Developmental Work Research model was used in attempting to get a systemic view of different factors affecting a special educational entity. The study showed the importance of a holistic view. The special educational system in the research target seems to be strongly linked to the general structure of vocational education, its goals, learning principles, legislation and personnel structure. The development of vocational special education in Jyvaskyla followed the strongly regulated national guidelines set for vocational special education until the end of the 1990s. At that time new legislation, structural reforms and the change from norm-based towards an autonomous information-based self-government opened doors for new special educational implementation. From the perspective of teachers specialized in special educational needs (SEN-teachers) a clear change can be seen from an autonomous, defined work towards a loss of an expertise position. However, the strong linkage between general and special education in vocational education offers possibilities for inclusive education. In order to face the new challenges, the work of SEN-teachers has to be redefined to clearly broaden the perspective from teaching towards new expertise in each educational establishment.

It has been over twenty years since the publication of reports calling for increased efforts to reform undergraduate STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education. There are more STEM classrooms today that utilize "pedagogies of engagement" than there were twenty years ago; however, these kinds of learning environments are still not as common as they should be given the overwhelming evidence of their positive outcomes. Project Kaleidoscope (PKAL), because of its track record in highlighting and addressing issues in STEM higher education and its new partnership with the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U), is uniquely situated as a national, cross-disciplinary, undergraduate STEM education organization to address these challenges. Since its founding in 1989, PKAL has been pushing the frontiers of innovation in STEM pedagogy and faculty development, leadership capacity building, and network creation among its cross-disciplinary membership. As PKAL formulates its next-generation agenda, it does so within the context of a new formal partnership with AAC&U. In January 2010, PKAL formally joined forces with AAC&U to advance and amplify the work of both organizations with respect to transforming undergraduate STEM learning, teaching, and leadership. With AAC&U as an active partner, PKAL now has even greater potential to expand the number of faculty, administrators, and institutions involved in its programs and networks. PKAL is committed to working within existing and new AAC&U programs on general education and assessment, global learning, public health, and inclusive excellence in order to deepen the attention paid to STEM learning. (Contains 2 figures.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyze and profile significant national developments in higher education for sustainable development in India and to compare different educational approaches emerging in connection with education for sustainable development. Design/methodology/approach: This is an evaluative review of contrasting initiatives to provide environmental and sustainability education in different institutions, that takes into account philosophy, policy and practice in Indian higher education. Academic programmes, policy statements and education projects are analyzed, to highlight important developments, challenges and the prospects for future progress. Findings: Several principles of sustainable development are embedded in India's education policy. It is perhaps the only country where the highest court has mandated environmental education at all levels of formal education, which includes a compulsory undergraduate course. However, the challenges of implementing this requirement effectively are hampered by lack of inter-disciplinary competence among staff and students, and traditional methods of assessment in HE. India has examples of successful community-based initiatives but these often have resource implications. Many efforts to develop learning opportunities in this field have emerged primarily from academic and student interests and priorities rather than from formal policy initiatives. Originality/value: This paper provides an evaluative perspective on the diverse and innovative responses to sustainability emerging in Indian higher education, in curriculum development and to address issues of practice on campus and in local communities. The opportunity to analyse the implementation of a national initiative is unusual, particularly in the distinctive context of India, which has considerable prior engagement with sustainable development at the level of policy and practice. (Contains 1 table and 11 notes.)

For more than a decade the health education profession has used the seven responsibilities, outlined from the 1978-1988 Role Delineation Project, as the foundation for credentialing, curricular structure in professional preparation programs, and continuing education. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which the seven responsibilities and corresponding competencies were addressed in continuing education articles found in the professional literature. The method included using the Health Competency Assessment form to code responsibilities and competencies found in all continuing education articles (n=148) published between 1997 and 2000. The census of articles was found in four peer-reviewed journals and on web sites that published such articles for Certified Health Education Specialists. All articles offered for continuing education contact hours were selected and divided equally among the five researchers to read and evaluate (interrater reliability Pi=0.76 - 0.87). Results were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that the responsibilities are not addressed uniformly in the continuing education articles. Responsibilities I (assessing needs) and IV (evaluating programs) were most frequently addressed. Responsibility VI (acting as a resource person) was addressed in the literature the least often. As a result of this study it can be concluded that competencies are not addressed uniformly in continuing education articles. Based on the study's findings it is suggested that editorial boards of professional journals may want to clarify the role of their respective journals in continued professional development of their readers. (Contains 3 tables.)

This paper takes a feminist perspective on the UK literature on mass higher education in the 21st century, building on US critiques about marketization, neo-liberalism and "academic capitalism". Concepts of equality and diversity have been transformed by neo-liberalism and how these changes have constrained democratic contributions to UK higher education policies and practices is the focus. Diversity has replaced more traditional conceptualizations of socioeconomic inequalities, and has shifted from being about ethnicity/race to one of "widening participation" or "fair" access to higher education, including social class, disabilities, gender and age. Debate focuses on individual students on first or undergraduate degrees, whether full or part-time, and how higher education institutions can contribute to graduate employment, individual or social mobility, rather than re-inscribing social stratification. I present an analysis that demonstrates the challenges and dilemmas about equality and diversity in UK mass higher education and conclude that despite expansion of higher education "persistent inequalities" remain. I reveal UK policy shifts around gender as concerning women, as students or academics, to one about lack of educational opportunities in post-compulsory education for young men from poor or disadvantaged family backgrounds as students, ignoring the question of women's opportunities and contributions to new forms of academic practice. I argue that this illustrates how new forms of higher education, despite expansion and increasing participation, remain resistant to some of the feminist and critical yet creative challenges about transformations in academic practice and development.

This study is to historically survey the development of English language education policies in Korea to show that English education policies in Korea have developed to cultivate Korean students who are capable in a globalized world. This study has the following purposes: first, this paper surveys the origin of English education from the ending period of Chosun dynasty, and the developmental process through the Japanese Colonial period into the modern national curriculum periods. Second, this study emphasizes the development of English education policy by analyzing the 6th and the 7th national curriculum policies based on the progressive principles of educational philosophy. Based on the 6 progressive principles, this research paper can prove that English education policies in Korea have many traits for progressive orientation, which can play essential evidence for the development of English education policy. Third, this study can reveal the innovations of English education policies from the 1990s after the 6th and 7th national curriculums were reformed to direct English education in Korea appropriate for the globalized world. From the historical survey on the development of English education, we can conclude that the policies of English education in Korea have developed in the direction of cultivating the communicative competence of Korean learners. In the future, English education policies of Korea have to develop in the direction that can lead the communicative and cultural competence of Korean learners. Further, the direction of English education in the future needs to accommodate World Englishes with Korean, English as one variety of World Englishes. (Contains 1 table.)

The focus of this paper is on the relationships between social origin, participation in tertiary education (enrolment, drop-out, enrolment at second level and post-tertiary education) and occupational instability among university graduates in a recent period of university and labour market reforms (the differentiation of higher education due to the "Bologna process" and the flexibilization of employment contracts). In the first part of the paper we review these institutional reforms, discussing how they have changed the structure of opportunities and constraints for students and graduates. In the second part we analyse data from several cross-section waves of the Upper Secondary Graduates Survey and the University Graduates Survey which cover both pre- and post-reform cohorts. Results from logistic regression models show a slight decline in the association between parents' education and enrolment in tertiary education, whereas there is a reduction and a new increase of inequality in drop-outs. We also find remarkable effects of parents' education on enrolment in post-graduate courses, but smaller on the risks of having unstable jobs and both are mainly stable over time. Only a slight reduction of the role of social origin in university participation and in the transition to the labour market took place, but it seems not to be too closely connected to the specific reforms which occurred in the 1990s.

The education of teachers in the United States needs to be turned upside down. Teacher education must shift away from emphasizing academic preparation and course work loosely linked to school-based experiences to programs fully grounded in clinical practice and interwoven with academic content and professional courses. This clinically based approach will create varied and extensive opportunities for candidates to connect what they learn with the challenge of using it, while under the expert tutelage of skilled clinical educators. Creating a system built around programs centered on clinical practice also holds promise for advancing shared responsibility for teacher preparation; supporting the development of complex teaching skills; and ensuring that all teachers know how to work closely with colleagues, students, and community. The vision for transforming the education of the nation's teacher workforce comes from a group representing a broad range of perspectives. The NCATE Blue Ribbon Panel on Clinical Preparation and Partnerships for Improved Student Learning is comprised of state officials, P-12 and higher education leaders, teachers, teacher educators, union representatives, and critics of teacher education. The group has identified 10 design principles for clinically based programs and a series of strategies to revolutionize teacher education. This report recommends sweeping changes in how educators deliver, monitor, evaluate, oversee, and staff clinically based preparation. It urges teacher education programs to transform preparation of all teachers, regardless of where they teach, but also notes the urgent need to address the challenges facing high-need and low-performing schools.

Any moves towards substantive equality in education must negotiate the contradictions between equality and efficiency. Equality of education comes about through both the widening of opportunity and the maintenance of educational quality, but in the context of limited resources, educational policy rarely serves both ends simultaneously. Regardless of imperatives involved in making particular policy choices, if the resulting outcomes are either too visible or the system is deemed to be too rigid, social inequality emerges as an intractable, highly salient issue. The critical questions for research thus become: How do various approaches to negotiating this central tension differ? How does the choice of strategies produce different results across different education systems? To explore these questions, this paper examines the function and outcomes of educational differentiation in Japan, both at the secondary and tertiary levels, in relation to social inequality. Given that Japan entered an era of "universal" access to higher education ahead of other high-income countries, it presents an ideal case to reflect on policy choices currently being considered or implemented elsewhere. Through cross-sectional analyses of three cohorts of Japanese graduates, it reveals that social equality in accessing elite secondary and higher education institutions deteriorates as privatisation of education advances. It concludes that hierarchical structure of secondary and higher education institutions, when coupled with policies advancing privatisation and universalisation, result in negative or inconsequential effects on social equality. (Contains 9 notes, 1 figure, and 6 tables.)

The humanist tradition in Western education systems is increasingly coming under critical scrutiny by posthumanist scholars, arguing that Enlightenment humanism accommodates a number of serious shortcomings such as being essentialist, exclusive, and unable to meet its own criteria of value pluralism, tolerance, and equity for all. This article formulates some challenges posed to formal education by posthumanist theory, addressing international education policymaking for social change. Based on an analysis of a number of education policy documents produced by UNESCO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Bank, the European Commission, and the Nordic Council of Ministers, it elicits five pervasive ideas about the relationship between education and social change that are frequently appearing in contemporary rhetoric of education policymaking: "the knowledge society"; "the democratic society"; "the multicultural society"; "the globalized society" and "the sustainable society". Inspired by critical discourse analysis, the article identifies a number of research questions focused on each of these five ideas and explores possible responses, inflected by a range of recent cross-disciplinary posthumanist scholarship, that deconstruct conventional assumptions about the idea of education in general and of education policymaking in particular. It concludes with a discussion of what subject positions and repertoires are, or are not, allowed to emerge in education policymaking for social change. (Contains 6 notes.)